How psychoactive substances formed Andean civilization in South America

Very Recommendable!

The article "High Society" is quite long, I did not read all of it.

"The journey of humans into South America was a strange trip—literally. When people arrived some 15,000 years ago, they encountered an ecologically diverse continent peculiarly rich in psychoactive plants. Botanists estimate more than 100 species there significantly alter human consciousness, accounting for more than two-thirds of the global total.

Perhaps, then, it’s no surprise that psychoactive substances played a starring role in many of the empires that arose there, particularly in the Andes. ..."

"Chavín De Huántar, Peru ... Archaeologists have long believed this 3000-year-old temple complex in a high and remote valley in the central Peruvian Andes was a center of drug rituals ...

Such finds strongly suggested the practice of mind-altering rituals, but in 2016 a team ... began to unearth what he calls “the smoking gun.” They uncovered a new gallery ... including 21 bone tubes,” ... which yielded traces of tobacco and something considerably more potent: seeds from the vilca tree, which contain bufotenine; dimethyltryptamine (DMT); and 5-MEO-DMT, a combination that produces short-lived but extremely intense visions. ...

Drug-based rituals, it is now becoming clear, played a central role in the emergence of Andean civilization. ... believes Chavín’s ritual leaders invited elites from other regions to take part in elaborate ceremonies centered on ingesting powerful substances amid a dramatic sound and light show. In so doing, “they harnessed the process of mental alteration to establish powerful levels of authority.” ...

Chavín’s success spawned imitators throughout the region. In subsequent centuries, the Tiahuanaco and Wari peoples built on these traditions to cement political, social, and religious power as their territories expanded to encompass vast swaths of western South America.

Widespread ritual drug use fell into decline only when the Inca rose after 1200 C.E.; Spanish conquerors suppressed remaining practices after their 1532 invasion. Although psychoactives remained in use for medicinal and small-scale religious purposes—many can still be found for sale in open-air markets—their powerful and pervasive influence on Andean society was relegated to the shadows. ...

Scattered evidence suggests early societies along the Peruvian coast experimented with psychoactives as early as the third millennium B.C.E. More solid evidence is found at Chavín, which emerged 150 kilometers to the north by 1200 B.C.E. The temple complex remained in continuous use until decline set in after an earthquake around 550 B.C.E. Notably, it lacks defenses, palaces, or signs of an organized military. Chavín was not the center of a political state, but a pilgrimage site that for centuries drew visitors from afar. ..."

ScienceAdviser

High culture "How psychoactive substances helped spur Andean civilization"

Snuff trays and tubes, like these found at San Pedro de Atacama in Chile, were used to ingest crushed seeds of the psychoactive vilca plant

Engineered in One Plant, Three Kingdoms, Five natural psychedelics

Good news!

"... Researchers ... have now managed to bring together in a single organism five psychedelic substances that in nature are scattered across the tree of life.

After uncovering how plants naturally produce one of the best-known psychedelic compounds, DMT, they were able to reengineer that process step by step inside a model plant – along with four other psychedelics. The result is what amounts to a biological factory that could, in the future, be used to simultaneously produce multiple psychedelic molecules, including some that do not naturally occur in plants. ..."

From the abstract:

"Psychedelic indolethylamines with therapeutic potential are naturally produced in plants, fungi, and animals.

Here, we elucidated the complete N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) biosynthetic pathway in hallucinogenic plant species traditionally used in shamanic rituals for spiritual healing.

Leveraging the similarities in their chemical structures, we reconstructed in one plant assay the full biosynthetic pathways of five renowned natural psychedelics; psilocin and psilocybin found in mushrooms, DMT from plants, and bufotenin and 5-methoxy-DMT secreted by the Sonoran Desert toad. 

We further engineered halogenated analogs of these molecules, which do not naturally occur in plants and exhibit prospective therapeutic potential for psychiatric conditions.

Blending catalytic functions across the tree of life, coupled with metabolic engineering guided by rational protein design of mutant enzymes, enabled substantially more efficient in planta production of the indolethylamine components.

This work establishes a versatile platform for concurrent biosynthesis and diversification of psychoactive indolethylamines, paving the way for their production in plants."

One Plant, Three Kingdoms, Five Trips - Environment | Weizmann Wonder Wander - News, Features and Discoveries "... scientists decipher how a well-known psychedelic substance is created, then engineer a plant to produce several psychedelics at once"

Complete biosynthesis of psychedelic tryptamines from three kingdoms in plants (open access)

Fig. 3. Reconstruction of the N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine biosynthetic pathway.

Fig. 5. Metabolic engineering strategy for complete reconstruction of psychedelic indolethylamine biosynthetic pathways in N. benthamiana.

Roughly 10 million US adults reported microdosing psilocybin, LSD, or MDMA in 2025.

One nation under drugs?

"... Psilocybin (also known as magic mushrooms) remains the most used psychedelic. As the figure below shows, more than 4 percent of respondents reported using psilocybin in the last year. That’s about 11 million Americans. Psilocybin was followed by MDMA, Amanita muscaria mushrooms, ketamine, and LSD. ...

But one of the biggest takeaways from the survey is just how common it is for people who use psychedelics to microdose—to take a very small amount without intending to alter their state of consciousness.

• Roughly 10 million adults reported microdosing psilocybin, LSD, or MDMA in 2025.
• Among those who used psilocybin in the past year, 69 percent microdosed at least once.
• The total number of days that U.S. adults used psilocybin in 2025 exceeded 200 million. Nearly half of those days involved microdosing.

..."

Millions of Americans Are Microdosing Psychedelics

U.S. Psychedelic Use and Microdosing in 2025: Insights from a Probability-Based and Nationally Representative Survey | RAND

Beyond Psychedelics: The Next Generation of Precision Neurotherapeutics for Mental Healthcare

Recommendable! An overview article.

"... More specifically, psychedelics transiently and indirectly alter glutamatergic signaling in ways that promote widespread neuroplasticity and emotional recalibration, while ketamine engages similar plasticity-related pathways through NMDA receptor inhibition, increasing glutamate release and AMPA receptor signaling. However, these drugs act broadly across the brain, producing intense, variable, and subjective effects.

This has motivated a shift toward precision neuroscience. Rather than globally altering brain activity, next-generation drugs are being designed to modulate dysfunctional circuitry in two complementary ways:

by targeting glutamatergic signaling in defined brain regions and circuits involved in fear, mood, and emotional regulation, and

by minimizing hallucinogenic or dissociative effects.

Psychedelics revealed the importance of circuit remodeling; precision approaches offer a safer, more scalable path to harness it. ..."

Beyond Psychedelics: The Next Generation of Precision Neurotherapeutics for Mental Healthcare | The Scientist

Origins of THC, CBD and CBC in cannabis revealed by resurrecting extinct ancestral enzymes active millions of years ago

Amazing stuff! Reconstructing extinct enzymes could have wide ranging applications in the future.

"... Researchers ... have experimentally demonstrated for the first time how cannabis acquired the ability to produce these cannabinoids. In the process, they also developed enzymes that show promise for the biotechnological production of cannabinoids for medicinal applications. ...

the researchers reconstructed extinct enzymes that were active millions of years ago in ancestors of the cannabis plant. In cannabis, enzymes play a key role in the production of cannabinoids—bioactive compounds with, among other things, medicinal potential. ..."

"... The researchers used a technique known as ancestral sequence reconstruction. Based on DNA from modern plants, this method makes it possible to infer what enzymes looked like millions of years ago. These ‘ancestral enzymes’ were then resurrected in the laboratory and experimentally tested. The study provides the first experimental evidence that the biosynthesis of cannabinoids such as THC originated within a relatively recent ancestor of cannabis and subsequently became increasingly refined. ..."

From the abstract:

"Cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), are bioactive and medicinally relevant compounds found in the cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa L.).

These three compounds are synthesised from a single precursor, cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), through regioselective reactions catalysed by different cannabinoid oxidocyclase enzymes. Despite the importance of cannabinoid oxidocyclases for determining cannabis chemotype and properties, the functional evolution and molecular mechanism of this enzyme family remain poorly understood.

To address this gap, we combined ancestral sequence reconstruction and heterologous expression to resurrect and functionally characterise three ancestral cannabinoid oxidocyclases.

Results showed that the ability to metabolise CBGA originated in a recent ancestor of cannabis and that early cannabinoid oxidocyclases were promiscuous enzymes producing all three THCA, CBDA and CBCA.

Gene duplication and diversification later facilitated enzyme sub functionalisation, leading to extant, highly-specialised THCA and CBDA synthases.

Through rational engineering of these ancestors, we designed hybrid enzymes which allowed identifying key amino acid mutations underlying the functional evolution of cannabinoid oxidocyclases.

Ancestral and hybrid enzymes also displayed unique activities and proved to be easier to produce heterologously than their extant counterparts.

Overall, this study contributes to understanding the origin, evolution and molecular mechanism of cannabinoid oxidocyclases, which opens new perspectives for breeding, biotechnological and medicinal applications."

Origins of THC, CBD and CBC in cannabis revealed

Origins of THC, CBD and CBC in cannabis revealed (original news release) "Where do the well-known cannabis compounds THC, CBD and CBC come from? Researchers ... have experimentally demonstrated for the first time how cannabis acquired the ability to produce these cannabinoids. In the process, they also developed enzymes that show promise for the biotechnological production of cannabinoids for medicinal applications."

Resurrected Ancestral Cannabis Enzymes Unveil the Origin and Functional Evolution of Cannabinoid Synthases (open access)

Fig. 5 Major modifications in the substrate binding region of ancestral and hybrid cannabinoid oxidocyclases.

Trump Has No Authority to Categorize Fentanyl as Weapon of Mass Destruction. Really!

How this National Review editor makes a fool out of himself! Or is it Trump Derangement Syndrome?

Fact is one can consider and designate illegal Fentanyl killing tens of thousands of Americans every year as a chemical weapon in the sense of ABC weapons.

I have just blogged here about the legalization of psychoactive drugs in Western countries.

Caveat: I did not read the article. It is behind paywall.

Trump Has No Authority to Categorize Fentanyl as Weapon of Mass Destruction | National Review "Common sense tells us that narcotic drugs are different from WMD. As one would expect, these differences are reflected in law."

Andrew C. McCarthy is a senior fellow at National Review Institute, an NR contributing editor (official photo, source). Maybe his mind is as blurry as his official photo?

On the legalization of psychoactive drugs in Western countries since the 1960s

Since the 1960s or so, Western countries have struggled to find a way to deal with psychoactive substances.

Now President Trump is reported to sign an order to reclassify cannabis to a lower schedule.

The spectrum of tried and adopted policies regarding psychoactive drugs in Western countries range from decriminalization, legalization to harsh prohibition, criminalization, law enforcement and military suppression. Perhaps alcohol is a good example!

In many Western countries, the historic moral, religious and cultural rejection of psychoactive substances has lessened or has been waning since the 1960s. More individuals have been willing to try or to consume.

Then there are the many empirical findings of medical benefits of some psychoactive substances as treatment for patients with specific health conditions.

In my opinion, one of the major reasons why legalization was not too successful in many cases is the issue of individual responsibility and accountability of each individual when using psychoactive substances. With freedom/liberty comes great responsibility!

Common sense would suggest that individual responsibility and accountability is automatically elevated when using psychoactive substances. This also means that in case of accidents or crimes the culpability for drug using individuals is automatically higher.

The excuse/reason of addiction for milder circumstances or as a mitigating factor to reduce individual culpability should be eliminated in cases of accidents or crimes. Therefore, more severe punishment or sentences compared to sober individuals are to be expected!

Individuals should be required to seek immediate medical help and treatment when addiction is diagnosed or suspected. Some individuals may have to be required to undergo drug testing for addiction. Some unwilling addicted individuals may have to be forced to undergo treatment like e.g. repeat offenders.

Another important issue is the distribution/sale of psychoactive drugs. Here are some critical questions for which Western countries have not found good and acceptable answers yet:

• Should they be allowed to be sold at stores like alcohol & tobacco?
• Should they be available only via prescription and through pharmacies? 
• How to protect children/minors?

Today, it the diagnosis of and testing for psychoactive substance use/abuse is much more advanced and better. The near future is even more promising. This fact by itself would suggest that more legalization ought to be tried.

The major benefits of legalization have been also known and repeatedly discussed since at least the 1960s:

1. A major illegal business would be largely reduced or perhaps even almost eliminated (remember the failed alcohol prohibition)
2. The many health risks of illegal drugs would be significantly reduced. The quality and safety of the drugs available would be enhanced a lot. Much less adulteration!
3. Better medical care for individuals suffering from addiction would become available
4. Better public education about the use of psychoactive substances would be possible

In conclusion, as a classical liberal I would say at the end of the first quarter of the 21st century it is time to allow for more legalization of psychoactive drugs in Western countries.

Trump says he's looking at reclassifying marijuana at federal level as a less dangerous drug

Who would have thought that President Trump has a heart for junkies or recreational users? Just kidding!

"... "We're looking at reclassification and we'll make a determination over the next few weeks," Trump said at news conference August 11.

Though 45 states have legalized the use of marijuana for medicinal or recreational use, the federal government still classifies it as a Schedule I drug. ..."

Trump says he's looking at reclassifying marijuana at federal level "In 2024, DEA proposed a rule to transfer marijuana to Schedule III. That rule change has been on hold since March 2025."

Credits: The Flyover

Consuming cannabis while pregnant appears to increase the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and infant death

Bad news! But to be expected! Cannabis consumption is not harmless not even in states like Oregon, where cannabis use is largely legitimized!

Why the certainty of evidence for risks in previous studies was classified as "very-low-to-low" is a mystery to me and casts some doubt about this meta study! That should have been a red flag immediately that something is wrong with the study!

"... “Patients are coming to me in their prenatal visits saying, ‘I quit smoking and drinking, but is it safe to still use cannabis?’” said lead author Jamie Lo, M.D., M.C.R., associate professor of obstetrics and gynecology (maternal-fetal medicine) ...

In fact, cannabis remains one of the most common substances used in pregnancy that’s still illegal under federal law, and, unlike declines in prenatal use of alcohol or nicotine, cannabis use is continuing to increase. Lo said many of her patients are reluctant to give up cannabis during pregnancy because it helps to reduce common prenatal symptoms such as nausea, insomnia and pain. ...

The researchers found eight new studies since their previous update, raising the certainty of evidence from “very-low-to-low” to “moderate” for increased odds of low birth weight, preterm birth and babies being small for their gestational age. ..."

From the key points and abstract:

"Key Points

Question  Is cannabis use in pregnancy associated with neonatal outcomes?

Findings  In this updated systematic review and meta-analysis of 51 studies, prenatal cannabis use was associated with increased odds of preterm birth, small for gestational age, low birth weight, and perinatal mortality.

Meaning  Using cannabis in pregnancy was associated with increased risk of adverse neonatal outcomes; health care professionals should include this in their patient counseling, and increased public health measures are needed to raise awareness on safety of use.

Abstract

Importance  Prenatal cannabis use continues to increase, and cannabis remains the most commonly used illegal substance in pregnancy. Accumulating evidence suggests potential adverse effects on fetal and neonatal outcomes following cannabis use in pregnancy.

Objective  To update a living systematic review and meta-analysis to provide a timely understanding regarding cannabis use in pregnancy and fetal and neonatal outcomes.

Data Sources  The previous review was updated by searching bibliographic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycInfo, Global Health, and Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from November 1, 2021, through April 4, 2024.

Study Selection  Cohort or case-control studies comparing pregnancies with and without prenatal cannabis use on prespecified fetal or neonatal outcomes with adjustment for confounders, such as co-use of tobacco products, were included. Two independent reviewers screened studies, with disagreements resolved through discussion.

Data Extraction and Synthesis  Included studies were extracted by 1 reviewer and confirmed by a second. Risk of bias was assessed with the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Random-effects meta-analyses of unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) were performed for all primary outcomes. Results were synthesized using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach.

Main Outcomes and Measures  Primary outcomes were preterm birth (PTB; <37 weeks of gestation), small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW; <2500 g), and perinatal mortality.

Results  For this update, 8 new studies with 1 709 998 participants were added, for a total of 51 studies synthesized (N = 21 146 938). From meta-analyses of adjusted effect sizes, moderate-certainty evidence indicated that cannabis use in pregnancy was associated with increased odds of LBW (20 studies; OR, 1.75; 95% CI, 1.41-2.18), PTB (20 studies; OR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.26-1.83), and SGA (12 studies; OR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.36-1.81), and low-certainty evidence indicated that it was associated with greater odds of perinatal mortality (6 studies; OR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.07-1.55). Previously, the evidence was rated as very low or low certainty.

Conclusions and Relevance  Cannabis use in pregnancy was associated with greater odds of PTB, SGA, and LBW even after adjusting for co-use of tobacco products, and confidence in these findings increased from low in the prior review to moderate in the current meta-analysis. The findings of this study may help inform patient counseling and future public health policies."

Global Health NOW: Redrawing Battle Lines in the AIDS Fight; Twists in Abortion Lawsuit; and The Lifesaving Potential of Self-Driving Cars

Evidence review raises concern about cannabis use in pregnancy (original news release) "OHSU research team finds moderate risk for preterm birth, low birth weigh"

Prenatal Cannabis Use and Neonatal Outcomes / A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (no public access)

New player in alcohol effects

Good news! We still do not even fully understand the effects of alcohol.

"Alcohol is a psychoactive drug widely used—and sometimes abused—by humans. Wang et al. report a previously unrecognized protein that participates in key actions through which alcohol affects brain function. The authors searched for proteins with altered expression in brains from deceased alcoholics and identified a transmembrane protein called TMEM132B. One of the main targets of alcohol in neurons are μ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors (GABAARs), a class of neurotransmitter receptors. TMEM132B was found to interact with GABAARs and, in transfected cells, to increase the allosteric activation of GABAARs by alcohol. Loss of this interaction decreased alcohol-induced signaling by GABAARs in neurons, decreased the behavioral effects of alcohol in mice, and increased binge drinking–like behavior in the animals."

From the highlights and abstract:

"Highlights

• Single-pass transmembrane protein TMEM132B is a GABAAR auxiliary subunit

• TMEM132B promotes GABAAR expression at the cell surface and slows receptor deactivation

• TMEM132B enhances the allosteric effects of alcohol on various GABAARs

• Genetic inactivation of TMEM132B in mice alters alcohol-related behaviors

Summary

Alcohol is the most consumed and abused psychoactive drug globally, but the molecular mechanisms driving alcohol action and its associated behaviors in the brain remain enigmatic. Here, we have discovered a transmembrane protein TMEM132B that is a GABAA receptor (GABAAR) auxiliary subunit. Functionally, TMEM132B promotes GABAAR expression at the cell surface, slows receptor deactivation, and enhances the allosteric effects of alcohol on the receptor. In TMEM132B knockout (KO) mice or TMEM132B I499A knockin (KI) mice in which the TMEM132B-GABAAR interaction is specifically abolished, GABAergic transmission is decreased and alcohol-induced potentiation of GABAAR-mediated currents is diminished in hippocampal neurons.

Behaviorally, the anxiolytic and sedative/hypnotic effects of alcohol are markedly reduced, and compulsive, binge-like alcohol consumption is significantly increased. Taken together, these data reveal a GABAAR auxiliary subunit, identify the TMEM132B-GABAAR complex as a major alcohol target in the brain, and provide mechanistic insights into alcohol-related behaviors."

In Other Journals | Science

The TMEM132B-GABAA receptor complex controls alcohol actions in the brain

Graphical abstract

Protecting brain cells and treating traumatic brain injury with cannabinol

Get high, protect your brain? 😊 Maybe it only helps the famous fruit fly? 😊

"... Scientists have begun exploring whether cannabinoids—compounds derived from the cannabis plant, like well-known THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol)—may offer a solution. A third, lesser-known cannabinoid called CBN (cannabinol) has recently piqued the interest of researchers, who have begun exploring the clinical potential of the milder, less psychoactive substance. ...
In a new study, scientists at the Salk Institute help explain how CBN protects the brain against aging and neurodegeneration, then use their findings to develop potential therapeutics. The researchers created four CBN-inspired compounds that were more neuroprotective than the standard CBN molecule—one of which was highly effective in treating traumatic brain injury in a Drosophila fruit fly model. ..."

From the highlights and abstract:

"Highlights

• Fragment-based approach to analyze the structure-activity relationship of phytocannabinoids against oxytosis/ferroptosis.

• Development of novel analogs of cannabinol (CBN) with improved CNS druglikeness and antioxidant activities.

• New CBN analogs are potent inhibitors of oxytosis/ferroptosis in cell-based phenotypic screening.

• New CBN analogs prevent mitochondrial dysfunction in neuronal cells.

• New CBN analogs show in vivo beneficial efficacy in the Drosophila model of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI).

Abstract

The oxytosis/ferroptosis regulated cell death pathway is an emerging field of research owing to its pathophysiological relevance to a wide range of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and traumatic brain injury. Developing novel neurotherapeutics to inhibit oxytosis/ferroptosis offers exciting opportunities for the treatment of these and other neurological diseases. Previously, we discovered cannabinol (CBN) as a unique, potent inhibitor of oxytosis/ferroptosis by targeting mitochondria and modulating their function in neuronal cells. To further elucidate which key pharmacophores and chemical space are essential to the beneficial effects of CBN, we herein introduce a fragment-based drug discovery strategy in conjunction with cell-based phenotypic screens using oxytosis/ferroptosis to determine the structure-activity relationship of CBN. The resulting information led to the development of four new CBN analogs, CP1-CP4, that not only preserve the sub-micromolar potency of neuroprotection and mitochondria-modulating activities seen with CBN in neuronal cell models but also have better druglike properties. Moreover, compared to CBN, the analog CP1 shows improved in vivo efficacy in the Drosophila model of mild traumatic brain injury. Together these studies identify the key molecular scaffolds of cannabinoids that contribute to neuroprotection against oxytosis/ferroptosis. They also highlight the advantageous approach of combining in vitro cell-based assays and rapid in vivo studies using Drosophila models for evaluating new therapeutic compounds."

Protecting brain cells with cannabinol - Salk Institute for Biological Studies Salk scientists observe cannabinol's neuroprotective properties in fruit flys and identify cannabinol analogs that could serve as promising future therapeutics for traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's

Fragment-based drug discovery and biological evaluation of novel cannabinol-based inhibitors of oxytosis/ferroptosis for neurological disorders (open access)

Graphical abstract

After partial cannabis legalization in Germany, what are the pros and cons?

Cannabis growing social clubs in Germany! Or more legal home grown cannabis!

No word about increased individual responsibility of cannabis consumers! E.g. what about car accidents? More individual libery means more responsibility!

This FDP representative is a total moron!

Should we treat addiction with psychedelics?

A cautionary tale! To use a cliche: To fight fire with fire can be hazardous too.

Individuals suffering from substance use disorders ought to be allowed to try and experiment. However, it usually takes some individual responsibility and discipline to manage a treatment with psychedelics e.g. to avoid becoming addicted to them etc.

"... these aren’t a cure ... There are many other treatment modalities that are out there, from regular treatment to medication-assisted recovery to other holistic modalities that can help us live better lives.” ...
the idea that psychedelics might prompt a neurochemical reset in the brain have many looking to the approach as a promising treatment for addiction disorders. Around 17 percent of Americans have met criteria for a substance use disorder in the past year ... Yet fewer than 10 percent get treatment ..."

Should we treat addiction with psychedelics? — Harvard Gazette Despite promise of success stories from patients in recovery, Law School panel cautions that research is lacking on benefits vs. risks

New Street drugs stronger than heroin linked to 54 deaths in UK made in China

Not long ago, exporting such substances to other countries would have been considered a casus belli (cause for war).

The Communist Party of China is responsible for a lot of illegal drug related deaths in Western countries!

"The deaths are all linked to synthetic opioids called nitazenes, which experts fear are being manufactured in labs and then imported into the UK from China.

However, the true total could be higher - the National Crime Agency (NCA) said 40 more cases awaited further testing.

The UK government plans to classify 15 new synthetic opioids as Class A drugs.

Nitazenes first made news in the UK in 2021, when an 18-year-old patient was treated for a non-fatal overdose.

Experts say the new drugs can be stronger than both heroin and fentanyl, another synthetic opioid, which is a leading killer in the US - contributing to 75,000 deaths last year. ..."

Street drugs stronger than heroin linked to 54 deaths in UK Super-strength street drugs more powerful than heroin have been linked to at least 54 deaths in the UK in the last six months, the BBC has been told.

Credits: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Global Health NOW

Prager University: What's Wrong with Marijuana?

Very recommendable! Serious stuff!

What is the New more potent Synthetic Drug Causing “Holes” in Skin spreading in the UK and Ireland? with Palki Sharma

Bad news!

Why Is the Fentanyl Crisis Terrifying the World?

Recommendable! There could indeed be a risk that what is happening in the U.S. may spread to other counties as well. Fentanyl is very cheap and very lethal in small dosages. It can easily be concealed and it is hard to detect for law enforcement. What more can you want for an addictive drug?

That precursors for Fentanyl are coming out of China is another big issue.

If the Fentanyl crisis were to come to Mexico too, maybe Mexico would finally do more about its drug cartels.

Would controlled legalization of Fentanyl be an option? It is maybe worth a try.

Thailand’s prime minister vows to end ‘free use’ of cannabis in 6 months

Could that be a warning to some Western countries where cannabis was made available almost like candy!

Psychoactive substances are a double edged sword!

"Thailand’s lax cannabis laws will be rewritten to permit medical use only, says the country’s new prime minister—in order to stem the “rampant” proliferation of weed shops that have opened since the drug was legalized last year." (Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Global Health NOW)

"Thailand’s leader on Wednesday vowed to restrict the use of cannabis to medical purposes after thousands of weed shops opened across the country since it became the first in Asia to decriminalise cannabis in 2022.

The government will seek to “rectify” its cannabis policy and the rampant growth of dispensaries that freely sell weed within a six-month timeframe ...

“It needs to be rectified. We can have that regulated for medical use only,” he said, adding that there cannot be a middle ground for recreational use. ... An ongoing regulatory vacuum, following the move to declassify marijuana as a narcotic, has led to the mushrooming of nearly 6,000 dispensaries all over Thailand.

They sell everything from cannabis buds to oil extracts containing less than 0.2 per cent tetrahydrocannabinol – the psychoactive compound that gives users a “high” sensation.

Thai farmers are also allowed to freely grow cannabis after registering with the nation’s Food and Drug Administration. Local dispensary owners have also complained about unbridled imports and depressed prices. ...

Thailand is considered the main conduit for drug trafficking along South-east Asia’s vast Mekong River valley, with enforcement agencies perceived to often turn a blind eye. ..."

Thailand’s prime minister vows to end ‘free use’ of cannabis in 6 months | The Straits Times

High levels of dangerous metals like lead and cadmium found in exclusive marijuana users

Recreational poisoning!

"... cannabis plant is known to accumulate metals found in water, soil, fertilizers and pesticides. ...
After adjusting for age, sex, race and ethnicity and education, the researchers found higher levels of cadmium and lead in the blood and urine of participants reporting exclusive marijuana use when compared with non-marijuana/non-tobacco use. Cadmium and lead levels were also higher in exclusive marijuana users who’d reported using the drug within the last seven days, with metal levels falling with increased time since last use. ...
In terms of limitations, the researchers recognize that their study did not include how the marijuana was used, such as vape, combustibles and edibles, so they were unable to determine the difference in metal concentrations by method of use. ..."

"... Marijuana is the third most commonly used drug in the world behind tobacco and alcohol. As of 2022, 21 states and Washington D.C., covering more than 50 percent of the U.S. population, have legalized recreational use of marijuana; and medical marijuana is legal in 38 states and Washington D.C. However, because marijuana is still illegal at the federal level, regulation of contaminants in all cannabis-containing products remains piecemeal and there has been no guidance from federal regulatory agencies like the FDA or EPA. As of 2019, 48.2 million people, or 18 percent of Americans, report using marijuana at least once in the last year.
While 28 states regulate inorganic arsenic, cadmium, lead, and total mercury concentrations in marijuana products, regulation limits vary by metal and by state. ..."

From the abstract:

"Abstract

Background:

Marijuana is the third most used drug in the world.

Objectives:

Because the cannabis plant is a known scavenger of metals, we hypothesized that individuals who use marijuana will have higher metal biomarker levels compared with those who do not use.

Methods:

We combined data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005–2018) for 7,254n=7,254

 participants, classified by use: non-marijuana/non-tobacco, exclusive marijuana, exclusive tobacco, and dual marijuana and tobacco use. Five metals were measured in blood and 16 in urine using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; urinary metals were adjusted for urinary creatinine.

Results:

Participants reporting exclusive marijuana use compared with non-marijuana/non-tobacco use had statistically significantly higher mean cadmium levels in blood [1.22 micrograms per liter1.22μg/L (95% CI: 1.11, 1.34); less than 0.001p<0.001] and urine [1.18 micrograms per gram1.18μg/g (95% CI: 1.0, 1.31);  0.004p=0.004] and statistically significantly higher mean lead levels in blood [1/27 micrograms per deciliter1.27μg/dL  (95% CI: 1.07, 1.50); 0.006p=0.006 ] and urine [1.21 micrograms per gram1.21μg/g  (95% CI: negative 0.006−0.006, 1.50); 0.058p=0.058].

Discussion:

Our results suggest marijuana is a source of cadmium and lead exposure. Research regarding cannabis use and cannabis contaminants, particularly metals, should be conducted to address public health concerns related to the growing number of cannabis users. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12074"

High levels of dangerous metals found in exclusive marijuana users A new study has found that people who exclusively use marijuana have higher levels of potentially dangerous metals in their blood and urine than those who don’t. The findings suggest that marijuana may be an overlooked source of metal exposure, an important consideration given the rise in its use.

Blood and Urinary Metal Levels High among Exclusive Marijuana Users

Blood and Urinary Metal Levels among Exclusive Marijuana Users in NHANES (2005–2018) (open access)

18 States that eased marijuana laws see more impaired driving and fatalities, report says

Definitely a cause for concern. Now we have THC and alcohol impaired drivers on the road.

Perhaps, we need more self driving cars soon! 😊

It looks like many users are also clueless about the potency and quantity of THC they are consuming. E.g. many THC containing products (e.g. gummy bears, cookies) are not labeled as to how much THC they contain. 

Another issue: How much THC ends up with minors?

"The Drug Free America Foundation released a new report showing that states that have legalized or weakened restrictions around high-THC marijuana, either for medical or recreational use, saw 32% more marijuana-impaired driving than states that have not adopted the same policies. ..."

"Adding to the concern is the fact that fatalities in the U.S. from marijuana-impaired drivers have risen dramatically between 2000 and 2018, rising from 9 percent of all fatal crashes to 21.5 percent."

"Simultaneously, marijuana potency has also grown exponentially, from the “Woodstock Weed” that contained THC levels of 1-3 percent to the modern commercial marijuana that averages THC levels of between 19.2 and 21.5 percent. ..."

States that eased marijuana laws see more impaired driving, report says | Just The News Study also warns that the potency of marijuana has skyrocketed in recent decades.

DFAF study reveals marijuana-impaired driving more dangerous in states where the drug is more permissive

New study released coincides with Labor Day impaired driving crackdown, reveals marijuana-impaired driving more dangerous in states where the drug is more permissive

The Effect of Cannabis Legalization on Driving Under the Influence of Cannabis (DUIC)